Clovis, Black Mats, and Extra-Terrestrials

Black mat is the common name for an organic-rich layer of soil also called sapropelic silt, peaty muds, and paleo-aquolls. Its content is variable, and its appearance is variable, and it is at the heart of a controversial theory known as the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis (YDIH). The YDIH argues that black mats, or at least some of them, represent the remains of a cometary impact thought by its proponents to have kicked off the Younger Dryas. What is the Younger Dryas? The Younger Dryas (abbreviated YD), or Younger Dryas Chronozone (YDC), is the name of a brief geological period which occurred roughly between 13,000 and 11,700 calendar years ago (cal BP). It was the last episode of a series of fast-developing climatic changes that occurred at the end of the last Ice Age. The YD came after the Last Glacial Maximum (30,000–14,000 cal BP), which is what scientists call the last time glacial ice covered much of the Northern Hemisphere as well as higher elevations in the south. Immediately after the LGM, there was a warming trend, known as the Bà ¸lling-Ã…llerà ¸d period, during which time the glacial ice retreated. That warming period lasted about 1,000 years, and today we know that it marks the start of the Holocene, the geological period which we are still experiencing today. During the warmth of the Bà ¸lling-Ã…llerà ¸d, all kinds of human exploration and innovation developed, from the domestications of plants and animals to the colonization of the American continents. The Younger Dryas was an abrupt, 1,300-year return to the tundra-like cold, and it must have been a nasty shock to the Clovis hunter-gatherers in North America as well as Europes Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. Cultural Impact of the YD Along with a substantial drop in temperature, the sharp challenges of the YD include the Pleistocene megafauna extinctions. The large-bodied animals that disappeared between 15,000 and 10,000 years ago include mastodons, horses, camels, sloths, dire wolves, tapir, and short-faced bear. The North American colonists at the time called Clovis were primarily—but not exclusively—dependent on hunting that game, and the loss of the megafauna led them to reorganize their lifeways into a broader Archaic hunting-and-gathering lifestyle. In Eurasia, the descendants of  hunters and gatherers began domesticating plants and animals—but thats another story. YD Climate Shift in North America The following is a summary of the cultural changes that are documented in North America around the time of the Younger Dryas, from most recent to oldest. It is based on a summary compiled by an early proponent of the YDIH, C. Vance Haynes, and it is a reflection of current understanding of the cultural changes. Haynes was never fully convinced that the YDIH was a reality, but he was intrigued by the possibility. Archaic. 9,000–10,000 RCYBP. Drought conditions prevailed, during which Archaic mosaic hunter-gatherer lifestyles predominate.Post-Clovis. (black mat layer) 10,000–10,900 RCYBP (or 12,900 calibrated years BP). Wet conditions are in evidence at the sites of springs and lakes. No megafauna except for bison. Post-Clovis cultures include Folsom, Plainview, Agate Basin hunter-gatherers.Clovis stratum. 10,850–11,200 RCYBP. Drought conditions prevalent. Clovis sites found with now-extinct mammoth, mastodon, horses, camels, and other megafauna at springs and lake margins.Pre-Clovis stratum. 11,200–13,000 RCYBP. By 13,000 years ago, water tables had fallen to their lowest levels since the Last Glacial Maximum. Pre-Clovis is rare, stable uplands, eroded valley sides. The Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis The YDIH suggests that the climatic devastations of the Younger Dryas were the result of a major cosmic episode of multiple airbursts/impacts about 12,800 /-300 cal bp. There is no impact crater known for such an event, but proponents argued that it could have occurred over the North American ice shield. That cometary impact would have created wildfires and that and the climate impact are proposed to have produced the black mat, triggered the YD, contributed to the end-Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions and initiated human population reorganization across the Northern Hemisphere. The YDIH adherents have argued that black mats hold the key evidence for their cometary impact theory. What is a Black Mat? Black mats are organic-rich sediments and soils that form in wet environments associated with spring discharge. They are found throughout the world in these conditions, and they are abundant in Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene stratigraphic sequences throughout central and western North America. They form in a wide variety of soils and sediment types, including organic-rich grassland soils, wet-meadow soils, pond sediments, algal mats, diatomites, and marls. Black mats also contain a variable assemblage of magnetic and glassy spherules, high-temperature minerals and melt glass, nano-diamonds, carbon spherules, aciniform carbon, platinum, and osmium. The presence of this last set is what the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis adherents have used to back up their Black Mat theory. Conflicting Evidence The problem is: there is no evidence for a continent-wide wildfire and devastation event. There definitely is a dramatic increase in the number and frequency of black mats throughout the Younger Dryas, but thats not the only time in our geological history when black mats have occurred. Megafaunal extinctions were abrupt, but not that abrupt—the extinction period lasted several thousands of years. And it turns out the black mats are variable in content: some have charcoal, some have none. By and large, they seem to be naturally-formed wetland deposits, found full of the organic remains of rotted, not burned, plants. Microspherules, nano-diamonds, and fullerenes are all part of the cosmic dust that falls to earth every day. Finally, what we now know is that the Younger Dryas cold event is not unique. In fact, there were as many as 24 abrupt switches in climate, called Dansgaard-Oeschger cold spells. Those happened during the end of the Pleistocene as the glacial ice melted back, thought to be the results of changes in the Atlantic Oceans current as it, in turn, adapted to changes in the volume of ice present and water temperature. Summary The black mats are not likely evidence of a cometary impact, and the YD was one of several colder and warmer periods during the end of the last Ice Age that resulted from shifting conditions. What seemed at first like a brilliant and succinct explanation for a devastating climate change turned out on further investigation to be not nearly as succinct as we thought. Thats a lesson scientists learn all the time—that science doesnt come as neat and tidy as we can think it to be. The unfortunate thing is that neat and tidy explanations are so satisfying that we all—scientists and the public alike—fall for them every time. Science is a slow process, but even though some theories dont pan out, we still must pay attention when a preponderance of evidence points us in the same direction. Sources Ardelean, Ciprian F., et al. The Younger Dryas Black Mat from Ojo De Agua, a Geoarchaeological Site in Northeastern Zacatecas, Mexico. Quaternary International 463.Part A (2018): 140–52. Print.Bereiter, Bernhard, et al. Mean Global Ocean Temperatures During the Last Glacial Transition. Nature 553 (2018): 39. Print.Broecker, Wallace S., et al. Putting the Younger Dryas Cold Event into Context. Quaternary Science Reviews 29.9 (2010): 1078–81. Print.Firestone, R. B., et al. Evidence for an Extraterrestrial Impact 12,900 Years Ago That Contributed to the Megafaunal Extinctions and the Younger Dryas Cooling. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104.41 (2007): 16016–21. Print.Harris-Parks, Erin. The Micromorphology of Younger Dryas-Aged Black Mats from Nevada, Arizona, Texas and New Mexico. Quaternary Research 85.1 (2016): 94–106. Print.Haynes Jr., C. Vance. Younger Dryas Black Mats and the Rancholabrean Termination in North America. Proceedings of th e National Academy of Sciences 105.18 (2008): 6520–25. Print.Holliday, Vance, Todd Surovell, and Eileen Johnson. A Blind Test of the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis. PLOS ONE 11.7 (2016): e0155470. Print.Kennett, D. J., et al. Nanodiamonds in the Younger Dryas Boundary Sediment Layer. Science 323 (2009): 94. Print.Kennett, James P., et al. Bayesian Chronological Analyses Consistent with Synchronous Age of 12,835–12,735 Cal B.P. For Younger Dryas Boundary on Four Continents. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112.32 (2015): E4344–E53. Print.Mahaney, W. C., et al. Evidence from the Northwestern Venezuelan Andes for Extraterrestrial Impact: The Black Mat Enigma. Geomorphology 116.1 (2010): 48–57. Print.Meltzer, David J., et al. Chronological Evidence Fails to Support Claim of an Isochronous Widespread Layer of Cosmic Impact Indicators Dated to 12,800 Years Ago. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111.21 (2014): E2162–71. Print .Pinter, Nicholas, et al. The Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis: A Requiem. Earth-Science Reviews 106.3 (2011): 247–64. Print.van Hoesel, Annelies, et al. The Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis: A Critical Review. Quaternary Science Reviews 83.Supplement C (2014): 95–114. Print.

Why the United States got Involved in World War II Essay

us got involved in wwII because World War II was a war unlike any other war that has occurred in the history of the war. In studying this war, there are some significant events that contributed to the start of World War II, that led to the USs entrance into W.W.II, and events that helped bring an end to W.W.II. The failure of the Geneva Peace conference, Hitlers annexation of Austria, the Spanish Civil War, Hitlers acquisition of Czechoslovakia, the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, Germanys invasion of Poland, and the fall of France all contributed greatly to the start of World War II. Some events that contributed to the entrance of the US into the war were Italys invasion on Ethiopia, Japans invasion of China, the Attack on†¦show more content†¦The Spanish fascists, joined the monarchists and the clericals under General Francisco Franco to overthrow the democratic government of Spain. In reality, the neutral intentions of the US only helped the fascists- and the unrest in Spain contributed to the general unrest in Europe. The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact contributed to the build up of tension leading to World War II, because it gave Germany the security of an alliance with Russia. While Russia did not say that it would fight with Germany against its enemies, the Soviets did promise NOT to fight AGAINST Germany. It gave Hitler the security of knowing that he could face the French and British on the western front without having to worry about the Soviet armies on the eastern front. This confidence may have helped Hitler and the Nazis when Hitler made decisions for advancement of his goals and enlargement of his territory. The invasion of Poland was a leading event leading up to the outbreak of World War II. Polands mobilization was greatly hindered on September 1, by waves of German bombers attacking the railroads. 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Analysis Of The Poem Acquainted With The Night By...

The poem â€Å"Acquainted with the Night† by Robert Frost is not simply about a walk being taken on a rainy night, as one would assume on their first reading. Instead a closer reading of the poem will reveal to the reader a much darker journey. As the speaker describes his trudge through the city streets, the reader begins to see that this is far more than a walk through a gloomy night; it is a man’s journey through depression. While Frost’s dark poem is written much like a sonnet, having fourteen lines, it is not a sonnet in the traditional sense, as it follows the terza rima rhyming scheme which is â€Å"an interlocking three line rhyme scheme: aba, bcb, cdc, ded, and so on† (Meyer, 2012, p. 1673). Terza rima is made up of tercets woven into a rhyme scheme that requires the end-word of the second line in one tercet to supply the rhyme for the first and third lines in the next tercet, continuing the pattern until the final stanza or line. 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The Impact of Computers on a Business Paradigm free essay sample

A study of a new development enabling vending machine owners to keep track of their sales with the help of a computer. A paper which examines a development by Robert Allen of Blue World, Inc., a New York-based data processing company which is developing a system that will automatically track each purchase made, at the same time transmitting an account of the transaction to the vending machine owner. The paper discusses advantages of such a system such as the elimination of waste, automatic shelf stocking and operation streamlining. Another and very significant benefit of timely and accurate figures is the ability to know what your customer wants, and not just what he buys. For purposes of analysis, items can be grouped into different categories. Lunch is not just packages of white chocolate macadamia nut cookies, or bags of potato chips. Its also snack foods vs. sandwiches, and frozen dishes versus fully cooked fare. We will write a custom essay sample on The Impact of Computers on a Business Paradigm or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The precise and constantly updated information provided by computerized tracking systems opens up a whole new world of possibilities for vendors. Modern technology makes possible the provision of an astonishing array of products, and with schemes such as Blue Worlds, a vendor need only know his customer base and its buying habits and he has open to him whole new avenues of investment.